Introduction to Cases

Nominative - Nominaitif - Namniþ

The nominative case indicates the subject of a finite verb. Or, the performer of the action expressed by a verb. If the verb indicates that its meaning equates predicate to subject -- e.g. be, become, seem, appear -- then the predicate will also be in the nominative case. Similarly, if a passive verb is such that it equates predicate to subject -- e.g. be named, be called, be considered, be deemed, be made -- then the predicate takes the nominative case.

With verbs meaning name or call, WG often employs the nominative where one might otherwise expect the accusative or another oblique case. The verbs wisan 'be' and wairþan 'become' often employ the preposition du with the dative in place of a predicate nominative.

The nominative case is used in one, possibly two, instances for an absolute construction. In these constructions, a noun is paired with a past participle and forms a unit grammatically distinct (absolute) from the remaining constructions of the sentence. Such absolute constructions are generally in the dative, and sometimes in the accusative. However in some instances such pairings occur in the nominative, though the noun so modified is not the apparent subject of the finite verb of the main clause.

Examples:

Accusative - Akiusaitif - Wrohiþ

The accusative case indicates a direct object of a transitive verb, finite or non-finite. Also shows/ expresses directed motion, expressions of the extent of time or space.

Certain impersonal verbal constructions take the accusative. The verbs gredon 'be greedy, hungry', huggrjan 'hunger', þaursjan 'thirst' take the accusative of the person affected.

Occasionally either transitive or intransitive verbs may take an internal or cognate accusative. An internal accusative is any direct object reiterating or specifying the basic meaning of the verb; a cognate accusative further stipulates that the noun in the accusative be cognate with the verb itself.

Examples:

Some verbs in WG take a double accusative. The following are some situations in which this occurs:

(1) Personal Object + Predicate: Examples are so sunja frijans izwis briggiþ 'the truth shall make you free' (John 8.32); þanzei jah apaustuluns namnida 'whom also he named apostles' (Luke 6.13); motarjos garaihtana domidun guþ 'the publicans justified God', literally 'the publicans deemed God right' (Luke 7.29).

(2) Personal Object + Internal Accusative: Examples are ƕa áuk bóteiþ mannan 'for what shall it profit a man' (Mark 8.36); láisida ins in gajukom manag 'he taught them many things by parables' (Mark 4.2). There are other examples that may be considered as belonging to the category discussed next.

(3) Personal + Material Object: Some examples overlap with the category above. Examples are sa izwis láiseiþ allata 'he shall teach you all (things)' (John 14.26); wileima ei þatei þuk bidjos táujáis uggkis 'we would that thou shouldest do for us whatsoever we shall desire', literally '...whatsoever we shall ask thee' (Mark 10.35).

Viewed more generally, the accusative denotes extent in time or space, usually leading to some eventual endpoint or terminus.

Related to the above notion of extent is the so-called accusative of specification, or in the terminology of the classical languages, the accusative or respect. The accusative may be used to limit the scope of the surrounding semantic environment.

The accusative, like the more typical dative and very rarely the nominative, is used in absolute constructions. In this, a noun or pronoun together with a participle form a phrase grammatically distinct from the main clause, but are together taken as nearly equivalent in sense to a clause with a finite verb.

Genitive - Genaitif - Us-satiþ

The genitive case eludes concise description. In its most general sense, it is a case denoting relation of one sort or another. The typical nature of such relation is possession, as in Modern English 'Lincoln's hat'. But certain relations defy such characterization, such as 'Lincoln's presidency'. The genitive may denote the logical subject of the action which the head noun represents: 'Lincoln's death'. On the other hand, the genitive may express the logical object of the action which the head noun represents: 'Lincoln's assassination'. This broad range encompassed by the genitive in English is paralleled in Wistra Gutisk.

The genitive case indicates the possessor of another noun. Other relationships include: origin, objectivity, description, composition, etc.

Also, the genitive can denote partitivity, characteristics, and measure. Frequently, the genitive complements adjectives to complete their meaning or give further specification as a pronoun in the genitive case. As a possessive adjective, they can replace personal pronouns in the genitive. Such uses may specify composition, marking what the head noun consists of or is made from.

Examples:

The genitive frequently complements adjectives. Certain adjectives have their meaning completed or further specified by a noun or pronoun in the genitive.

Possessive adjectives regularly substitute for their corresponding personal pronouns in the genitive.

The genitive occasionally adopts the roles of either instrumental or ablative. For example, frija ist þis witódis 'she is free from the law', literally 'free of the law' (Romans 7.3); framaþjái libáináis guþs 'alienated from the life of God' (Ephesians 4.18); fullōs gabruko 'full of fragments' (Mark 8.19).

The genitive may be used independently of any head noun to specify time or place. Such uses of the genitive often have adverbial force in English. Uses of the genitive in reference to place often denote the goal of an action: manna sums gaggida landis 'A certain (noble)man went into a (far) country' (Luke 19.12); usleiþam jáinis stadis 'Let us pass over unto the other side' (Mark 4.35). Some adjectives have forms frozen in the genitive as common adverbs, e.g. filáus 'much'; allis 'at all, wholly, indeed'; raihtis 'indeed'.

The genitive regularly accompanies certain verbs. The genitive is often used as predicate ofter wisan 'to be' or wairþan 'to become' to show possession, partition, or membership. When a verb does not act over its object entirely, the object may be in the genitive: ei... nemi akranis 'that he might receive... of the fruit' (Mark 12.2); allái áinis hláibis jah áinis stiklis brúkjam 'we all partake of one bread and of one cup' (I Corinthians 10.17); jah swa þis hláibis matjái jaþ þis stikils drigkái 'and so let him eat of that bread, and drink of that cup' (I Corinthians 11.28). Some verbs referring to memory, perception, requesting, or desiring govern a genitive. Verbs meaning 'fill' are often accompanied by the genitive. Verbs meaning 'heal' or 'cleanse' may employ a genitive in an ablatival function: háiljan sik sauhte seináizo 'to heal themselves of their diseases' (Luke 6.17); aþþáu jabái ƕas gahráinjái sik þize 'if a man therefore purge himself from these' (II Timothy 2.21).

The genitive occasionally accompanies negation, a feature shared with Old Church Slavonic. That is, when a positive statement contains either an intransitive verb with nominative subject or a transitive verb with accusative object, the corresponding negative statement often changes the nominative or accusative to a genitive.

Dative - Daitif - Fra-atiþ

The dative case indicates the indirect object of a verb. The dative case also incorporate many of the functions seen in the ablative, locative, and instrumental cases in other languages which correspond approximately to the Modern English use of the prepositions ‘from’, ‘in’ or ‘on’, and ‘with’, respectively.

The dative also has these functions: separation, cause, manner, degree or difference. However, the dative is never used to function as the direct object.

The dative case denotes the indirect object of an action, as in the Modern English 'he is giving a book to me'. More generally, the dative denotes the somewhat vaguely defined referent of an action or state, as in Modern English 'that does not bode well for me' or 'what's it to you?' The dative case in Gothic also subsumes many of the functions represented by the Ablative, Locative, and Instrumental cases in other Indo-European languages. These cases correspond approximately to the Modern English use of the prepositions 'from', 'in' or 'on', and 'with', respectively.

The following examples exhibit the use of the dative to denote reference: liuhaþ du andhuleinái þiudom 'a light for enlightenment to the gentiles' (Luke 2.32); saurga meina alláim aíkklesjom 'my care for all (the) churches' (II Corinthians 11.28). This reference sometimes mixes with senses of possession or relation. This is particularly common after the verbs wisan 'to be' or wairþan 'to become'. Consider the following examples: jah ƕaþro imma sunus ist? 'and whence is he his son?', literally 'and whence is he son to him?' (Mark 12.37); jah ni was im barne 'and they had no children', literally 'and not was to them (of) children' (Luke 1.7); jah wairþiþ þus faheds jah swegniþa 'and thou shalt have joy and gladness', literally 'and there will be joy and gladness to you' (Luke 1.14); ei uns wairþái þata arbi 'that the inheritance may be ours', literally 'that the inheritance may be to us' (Luke 20.14). Note in the following example the alternation between genitive and dative: swaei frauja ist sa sunus mans jah þamma sabbato 'Therefore the Son of man is Lord also of the sabbath', literally 'therefore the son of man is lord also to the sabbath' (Mark 2.28). Greek, by contrast, employs the genitive in both phrases.

Examples:

Other functions of the Dative

The following uses of the dative stem from its function as instrumental case:

dative of means or instrument: usually equivalent to 'with' or 'by (means of)' in English. For example, sumáiþ þan lófam slóhun (ina) 'and others smote (him) with the palms of their hands' (Matthew 26.67); bláuþjandans waurd guþs þizái anabusnái izwarái 'making void the word of God through your command' (Mark 7.13); ufgaurdanái hupins izwarans sunjái jah gapáidódái brunjon garaihteins 'girt about your loins with truth, and clothed with the breastplate of righteousness' (Ephesians 6.14). dative of amount or price: for example, niu twái sparwans assarjáu bugjanda 'Are not two sparrows sold for a farthing?' (Matthew 10.29); wairþa galáubamma usbauhtái sijuþ 'ye are bought with a costly price' (I Corinthians 7.23). dative of accompaniment (sociative dative): such datives generally occur unaccompanied by a preposition only with the verbs wisan 'to be' and waírþan 'to become', and thus is often similar to the dative of reference or relation discussed above. Often, however, this is preceded by miþ, or used in conjunction with a verb prefixed with miþ- or ga-: ak jah gatewiþs fram aiklesjom miþgasinþa uns miþ anstái þizái 'but who was also chosen of the churches to travel with us with this grace', literally '...a traveling companion to us with this grace' (II Corinthians 8.19); jah galáistans waurþun imma Seimon jah þái miþ imma 'and Simon and those with him were followers to him' (Mark 1.36); miþskalkinóda mis 'he hath served with me' (Philippians 2.22); þatei miþ ni qam sipónjam seináim Iesus in þata skip 'that Jesus came not with his disciples into the ship' (John 6.22); ju gahōrinōda izái 'hath committed adultery with her ! already' (Matthew 5.28).

The following uses of the dative stem from its ablative or instrumental functions:

• dative of separation: for example, afstandand sumái galáubeinái 'some shall depart from faith' (I Timothy 4.1); þammei ik háubiþ afmaimáit 'from whom I cut off the head' (Mark 6.16).
• dative of cause: often overlaps with the dative of means. For example, ungaláubeinái usbruknódun 'because of unbelief they were broken off' (Romans 11.20); aþþan anstái guþs im saei im 'But by the grace of God I am what I am'; iþ ik huhráu fraqistna 'and I perish with hunger' (Luke 15.17).
• dative of manner: for example, swe in daga garedaba gaggáima, ni gabauram jah drugkaneim, ni ligram jah agláitjam, ni háifstái jah aljana 'Let us walk honestly, as in the day; not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying' (Romans 13.13); niu þamma samin ahmin iddjedum, niu þáim samam láistim 'walked we not in the same spirit? walked we not in the same steps?' (II Corinthians 12.18).
• dative of degree of difference: for example, ni waírhtái bótida 'by nothing bettered' (Mark 5.26); man áuk ni waihtái mik minizo gatáujan 'for I suppose myself to accomplish (things by) no whit less' (II Corinthians 11.5).
• dative of comparison: used to denote the standard to which comparison is made. For example, swinþóza mis ist 'is mightier than me' (Matthew 3.11); managizo þáim 'more than these' (Matthew 5.37); handugózei mannam 'wiser than men' (I Corinthians 1.25).

The following uses of the dative stem from its locative function:

• location in space: occasionally used independently, but more often accompanied by a locative preposition or a verb compounded with such a preposition. For example, unte mis atist ubil 'for evil is present with me' (Romans 7.21); iþ áins sums þize atstandandane imma 'and one of them standing by him' (Mark 14.47); jah ufswógjands ahmin seinamma 'and sighing deeply in his spirit' (Mark 8.12); du ganasjan þans gamalwidans hairtin 'to heal those broken in heart' (Luke 4.18).
• location in time: for example, urreisiþ naht jah daga 'and rise night and day' (Mark 4.27); wratódun þái birusjos is jera ƕammeh in Iairusalem 'Now his parents went to Jerusalem every year at the feast of the passover' (Luke 2.41); Hláif unsarana þana sinteinan gif uns himma daga 'Give us this day our daily bread' (Matthew 6.11); ni wairþái sa þlauhs izwar wintráu '(that) your flight be not in the winter' (Mark 13.18).

As in other Germanic languages, certain verbs in Wistra Gutisk use the dative to mark the direct object, leaving out the accusative altogether. Some such verbs may be grouped into general types:

• physical perception: (at)tēkan 'to touch'; kukjan 'to kiss'; (ga)baírgan 'to hide, keep, preserve'; gáumjan 'to perceive, observe'; witan 'to watch'. For example, sei tekiþ imma 'that touches him' (Luke 7.39); þammei kukjáu 'whomsoever I shall kiss' (Mark 14.44); ƕa gáumeis gramsta 'why beholdest thou the mote?' (Luke 6.41); witandans Iēsua 'watching Jesus' (Matthew 27.54).
• disposition: (ga)tráuan 'to trust'; galáubjan 'to believe'; neiwan 'to be angry'; aljanon 'to be jealous'. For example, jah galáubjam imma 'and we believe (in) him' (Matthew 27.42); iþ so Heródia náiw imma 'therefore this Herodias was angry with him' (Mark 6.19); iþ saei ufbrikiþ mis, ufbrikiþ þamma sandjandin mik 'and he that despiseth me despiseth him that sent me' (Luke 10.16).
• injury: balwjan 'to plague'; qistjan 'to destroy'. For example, balwjan unsis 'to torment us' (Matthew 8.29); ni qam sáiwalom qistjan ak nasjan 'is not come to destroy lives, but to save (them)' (Luke 9.56).
• separation: these likely take the dative in its ablative function, e.g. ufarmunnon 'to forget'; idweitjan 'to reproach'; sakan 'to rebuke'. For example, sweþáuh þáim afta ufarmunnonds 'indeed forgetting those (things which are) behind' (Philippians 3.13)

A common construction is the dative absolute. Such constructions employ a noun or pronoun combined with a participle to function as a self-contained clause. The noun and participle are placed in the dative (though occasionally the accusative, or even the nominative, is employed), and remain grammatically distinct (absolute) from the other elements of the sentence. For example, usleiþandin Iesua in skipa aftra hinfar marein, gaqemun sik manageins filu du imma 'and Jesus having passed over on a ship to the other side of the sea, there came to him a great multitude' (Mark 5.21). In other Indo-European languages such as Latin or Greek, such absolute constructions can refer only to entities completely grammatically absent from the remainder of the statement. The constructions in WG, however, are rarely so absolute. They frequently refer to someone or something which appears later in the statement, generally in the dative. For example, qimandin þan in garda duatiddjedun imma þái blindans 'And when he was come into the house, the blind men came to him' (Matthew 9.28). The WG dative absolute is often preceded by the preposition at: at andanahtja þan waurþanamma atberun du imma dáimónarjans managans 'When the even was come, they brought unto him many that were possessed with devils' (Matthew 8.16); jah at Iēsu ufdáupidamma jah bidjandin, usluknóda himins 'Jesus also being baptized and praying, the heaven was opened' (Luke 3.21); at libandin abin 'while (her) husband liveth' (Romans 7.3).