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Particles and Conjunctions

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Wistra-Gutisk makes use of a number of conjunctions. The simple joining of two clauses in a copulative fashion is most often accomplished with jah 'and'. This conjunction stands as the first element in its clause: warþ húhrus abrs and gawi jáinata, jah is dugann alaþarba wairþan 'a great famine came over that people, and he started to become very poor' (Luke 15.14). "jah" is also found sentence-initially, continuing a previous sentence in a style parallel to Greek kaí in the New Testament. The enclitic -uh 'and' affixes to the first word of its clause: Galáiþ in praitaúria aftra Peilātus jah wópida Iesu qaþuh imma... 'Pilate came into the pretorium again and called Jesus and said to him...' (John 18.33). Following iþ 'but', the conjunction -uh generally attaches to the verb of the clause: iþ Iesus iddjuh miþ im 'and then Jesus went with them' (Luke 7.6). The negative copulative is nih 'and not', a combination of ni 'not' and -uh. nih generally stands at the beginning of its clause: ni maúrnáiþ sáiwalái izwarái ƕa matjáiþ jah ƕa drigkáiþ nih leika izwaramma ƕē wasjáiþ 'have no thought for your life, what you shall eat and what you shall drink; nor for your body, how you shall dress' (Matthew 6.25).

 

The general disjunctive particle is aíþþáu 'or'. The sequence 'either... or' is typically jabái... aíþþáu or andizuh... aíþþáu. For example, untē jabái fijáiþ áinana jah anþarana frijōþ, aíþþáu áinamma ufháuseiþ iþ anþaramma frakann 'for either he will hate the one, and love the other; or else he will hold to the one, and despise the other' (Matthew 6.24). In direct questions of a disjunctive nature one finds -u... þau '(either)... or', where -u is appended to the first word of the first question: abu þus silbin þu þata qiþis, þáu anþarái þus qēþun bi mik? 'Sayest thou this thing of thyself, or did others tell it thee of me?' (John 18.34) Indirect disjunctive questions usually omit -u, though þáu remains to mark the second part.

 

There are several adversative particles: iþ, aþþan, ak, akei. These generally stand at the head of their clause: Háusidēduþ þatei qiþan ist þáim áirizam: ni maúrþrjáis; saei maúrþreiþ skula waírþiþ stauái. aþþan ik qiþa izwis... 'Ye have heard that it was said of them of old time, Thou shalt not kill; and whosoever shall kill shall be in danger of the judgment: But I say unto you...' (Matthew 5.21-22). The particle ak generally follows a negative introduction, while akei follows a positive. For example, ni hugei hauhaba, ak ogs 'Be not highminded, but fear' (Romans 11.20); compare all binah, akei ni all daug 'All things are lawful for me, but all things are not expedient' (1 Cor. 10.23).

The main causal conjunctions are áuk, allis, raíhtis, untē. The particles áuk, allis, raíhtis generally occupy second position in their clause, though áuk and raíhtis may also occupy third position. For example: mahteigs áuk ist 'for [God] is able' (Romans 14.4); maht wēsi áuk 'For it might have been' (Mark 14.5). áuk may combine with raíhtis or allis: sa áuk raíhtis 'for he' (Mark 6.17); saei áuk allis 'for whoever' (Mark 9.41). By contrast, untē 'for, because, until' occupies the first position in its clause: áudagái þái hráinjahaírtans, untē þái guþ gasaiƕand 'Blessed are the pure in heart: for they shall see God' (Matthew 5.8).

 

For ease of reference, the most common connective particles are listed in the following chart, along with their essential roles and basic translations.

 



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